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About

 Cairo

https://admin.archnet.org/rails/active_storage/blobs/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsibWVzc2FnZSI6IkJBaHBBcURxIiwiZXhwIjpudWxsLCJwdXIiOiJibG9iX2lkIn19--82e6d7d158ae0604de82fdcdf8b358873d7d820c/IMG04532.jpg

35 mm slide

IMG04532

place

tower

Egypt

The Tower of the Canopy, or Burj al-Rafraf, is located in the southern enclosure of the Citadel. It was built during the Bahri Mamluk period, and derives its name from the canopy constructed on top of it in 1292 under al-Ashraf Khalil. Source: Rabbat, Nasser O. 1989. The Citadel of Cairo. (Geneva: AKTC), p. 15-16.

Canopy Tower at the Citadel

Burj al-Rafraf

Variant

Term
 applied to the architecture of Greater Syria and Egypt between 1250/647 AH and 1516/921 AH. During this period the area was ruled by the Mamluk sultans based
 in Cairo.<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="3" width="100%"><tbody><tr> <th> </th></tr></tbody></table>



 

 

 

 
 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The word 'mamluk' is an Arabic term for slave and was 
applied to soldiers who, although non-Muslim by birth, had been captured
 as children, converted to Islam and trained to fight on behalf of their
 owners. The Mamluk sultanate had its origins in such slave soldiers, 
usually of Turkic or Mongol origin, who were used as guards by the 
Ayyubid sultans and princes. Gradually the Mamluks increased their power
 and by 1250/647 AH their position was so strong that they were able to depose 
and appoint sultans. In 1260/658 AH one of these soldiers, Baybars, became the 
first Mamluk sultan starting a tradition that was to endure for the next
 250 years.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The stability provided by the Mamluk regime was a stimulus to 
trade and numerous suqs, khans and caravanserais can be dated to this 
period. The Suq al-Qattanin (Cotton Market) in Jerusalem is one of the 
best preserved Mamluk city markets. It was built on the orders of Sultan
 al-Nasir Muhammad in 1336/736 AH as a huge complex with over fifty shop units,
 two bath houses and a khan. Each shop is a small cross-vaulted room 
opening onto the covered street with another room (for storage or 
accommodation) located above with a separate access. Although the 
highest concentration of suqs and khans was in the cities there was also
 an extensive network of roadside khans and caravanserais. Some of these
 buildings were quite large as they were not restricted by the 
competition for space evident in city buildings. Khan Yunis in Ghaza is a
 huge complex built in 1387/788 AH on the main road between Egypt and Syria. 
The plan comprises a huge central courtyard (perhaps with a building in 
the centre) with accommodation and storage units around the sides and a 
domed mosque with a minaret next to the gateway.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Mamluk sultanate can be divided into two periods; the first 
lasted from 1250-1382/647-783 AH and is known as the Bahri (sea-based) Mamluk 
period because the dominant Mamluks were based on Roda island in the 
Nile delta. The second period from 1382-1517/783-922 AH is known as the Burji 
Mamluk period because those in power came from the Citadel in Cairo 
(burj is Arabic for tower). This period is sometimes also called the 
Circassian period, as most of the sultans were of Circassian origin.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Mamluks were able to seize and retain power primarily through
 their superior military organization and training. This was 
demonstrated in 1260/658 AH when Sultan Baybars was able to halt the westward 
advance of the Mongols at the battle of 'Ayn Jalut in Palestine. 
Similarly the Mamluks continued to fight the Crusaders who by this time 
were confined to the coast of Syria. The main battles against the 
Crusaders took place under Sultan Qalaoun and his son Khalil. who in 
1291/689 AH captured the cities of Acre, Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli ending
 the Crusader presence in the Levant.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mamluk architecture reflects the confidence derived from its 
military successes and is one of the most distinctive Islamic styles of 
building. The main source for Mamluk architecture was the buildings of 
the Ayyubids and in some senses the Mamluk style is simply a development
 of that of the Ayyubids. However, the Mamluks were also influenced by 
other styles, in particular Italian and Andalusian architecture.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;As with Ayyubid architecture there is a significant difference 
between Syrian and Egyptian Mamluk architecture, which can be explained 
by the availability of materials and differing traditions of building. 
In Egypt brick remained an important material of construction up until 
the fifteenth century, whereas in Syria it was seldom used. Other 
differences can be detected in decorative details such as the type of 
arch used in muqarnas mouldings (in Egypt they are angular points 
whereas in Syria they have a rounded profile). Another factor which 
created different styles was Cairo's position as capital city which 
meant that its buildings tended to be grander and more highly decorated 
than those of Syria. Jerusalem is interesting in this respect as its 
position midway between Damascus and Cairo made it susceptible to 
influences from both Syria and Egypt.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;There are, however, several features which are characteristic of 
buildings throughout the area under Mamluk control. These can be 
considered under three headings: surface decoration, layout and 
planning, and structural elements.<div>Surface Decoration&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The most characteristic feature of Mamluk architecture (and art in 
general) is the use of heraldic blazons. These are usually round discs 
divided into three fields with various emblems (e.g. cup, horn, disc, 
etc.) set into the middle. Each sultan and group of Mamluks had their 
own blazon which would be applied to any objects belonging to the group 
including buildings. As well as providing dating evidence these blazons 
give a useful insight into how the Mamluk regime operated. Another 
related decoration employed on buildings was monumental calligraphy in 
Naskhi script, this would usually state the name and rank of a 
building's founder.The usual surface for both blazons and calligraphy is ashlar 
masonry, although plaster and wood are also sometimes used. Other 
decorative motifs employed are geometric and floral patterns which are 
often interlaced. Ceramic tile decoration is rare, although coloured 
glass mosaics and inlaid marble are occasionally used for mihrabs and 
other places of special importance. One decorative feature to spread 
from Syria to Egypt is the use of ablaq (alternating layers of different
 colours, or shades of masonry); this was used in Syria in Ayyubid times
 but is not found in Egypt until 1300/699 AH (it is possible that this idea may
 have Italian origins). Mashrabiyya screens of turned wood were also 
used for interiors.Structural Elements &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In addition to surface decoration many structural elements were 
developed into decorative features. Openings, in particular doorways, 
became subjects for elaboration and frequently consisted of a monumental
 frame or panel and a recessed niche for the door covered with a 
muqarnas vault. Another example of such elaboration is the joggled 
voussoir where the stones of an arch were cut so as to interlock and 
provide increased strength to the arch. Usually the effect is enhanced 
by using ablaq techniques. Sometimes this becomes purely surface 
decoration when the actual voussoirs are not intercut and there is 
simply an interlocking facade. Another decorative effect created with 
openings was the horseshoe arch which was introduced during this period.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Buildings were generally roofed with cross vaults although 
sometimes plain barrel vaults were used. In Jerusalem an elaborate form 
of vault called the folded cross vault was developed from Ayyubid 
military architecture. This is basically a cross vault with a large 
circular hole in the roof over which a wooden clerestory or other 
feature could be added. Domes were common in buildings of this period 
and could be made from a variety of materials including baked brick, 
wood and stone. Wooden domes were often used in houses and palaces 
because they were lighter and easier to build, although mausoleums 
tended to be covered with brick or stone domes. In 14th c./8th c. AH 
Cairo, masonry domes carved with arabesque designs became a fashionable 
method of covering tombs.Layout and Planning&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The growth of cities during the Mamluk period meant that most types of 
building, even palaces, were located within the fabric of a city. The 
result of this was that buildings were often built on an 
irregular-shaped plot because of the shortage of space. Many Mamluk 
buildings which seem to be square and symmetrical are built on irregular
 ground plans. The architects were able to make the buildings appear 
square by a variety of techniques such as horizontal lines (ablaq) and 
controlled access (passageways) which distort perspective. A related 
problem was that narrow streets tend to detract from the visual impact 
of a building facade. This was overcome by use of recessed entrances, 
domes, and projecting corners which have a cumulative effect of a 
staggered facade which can be viewed from the side.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The military nature of Mamluk rule affected society in many ways 
although it did not have much effect on architecture. The main reason 
for this was that so many fortresses had been built by the Ayyubids and 
Crusaders that there was generally no need to build new castles when 
existing fortifications could be repaired. Also with the advance of the 
Mongols the nature of warfare changed so that speed and communications 
became more important than the defence and capture of strongholds. As a 
consequence of this the Mamluks invested instead in an efficient system 
of communication based on small forts, fire beacons and pigeon lofts. 
This system was kept separate from the usual trade network of khans and 
caravanserais and was regarded as part of the Mamluks' military 
organization.Building Types &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Some of the most distinctive buildings of the Mamluk period are the many
 religious foundations. Most cities already had Friday mosques so that 
these were seldom built during this period. The Great Mosque in Tripoli 
is one exception to this and was built soon after the city was taken 
from the Crusaders, it has a traditional plan based around a central 
courtyard with single arcades on three sides and a double arcade on the 
qibla side. More typical of the period are the many religious 
institutions such as madrassas, zawiyas and khanqas built to counter the
 spread of Shi'ism. In Cairo these were often built to a cruciform plan 
which developed from the four-iwan madrassa where each iwan represents 
one of the schools of law. Many of these buildings also had some 
political purpose, thus they were often built as memorials to a 
particular Sultan or were used as centres for training officials. During
 this period it was common for the tomb of the founder to be 
incorporated into the building, this applied to mosques, madrassas and 
even hospitals.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Madrassas became a common feature in most cities and were used to
 train administrators. Jerusalem in particular seems to have been 
developed as a training ground for Mamluk clergy and officials and the 
area around the Haram was extensively developed (Mecca was too far from 
Cairo to be developed in this way and in any case was not directly under
 Mamluk control). Petersen, Andrew.&nbsp;Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. </div>

Canopy Tower at the CitadelCairo, Egypt

Canopy Tower at the Citadel
Cairo, Egypt